ABBEY. Canonically erected and independent monastery with a required minimum of religious. Occupied by monks, it is ruled by an abbot; if by nuns, ruled by an abbess. Most abbeys are either Benedictine or Cistercian.

APOSTOLATE. The work of an apostle, not only the first followers of Christ but of all the faithful who carry on the original mission entrusted by the Savior to the twelve to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19).

ASCETICISM. Spiritual effort or exercise in the pursuit of virtue. The purpose is to grow in Christian perfection. Its principles and norms are expanded in ascetical theology. (Etym. Greek asketikos, literally, give to exercise; industrious; applied to hermits who strictly exercised themselves in religious devotion.)

AUGUSTINIANS. A general name for fourteen different religious institutes of men and women who base their way of life on the Rule of St. Augustine.

BENEDICTINES. The men and women religious who follow the Rule of St. Benedict (480-547). Originally each monastery was an independent and self-sustaining unit, and this principle remains substantially in effect to the present day.

BREVIARY. The liturgical book containing the Divine Office of the Roman Catholic Church. Published in four consecutive volumes, its format is divided according to the following calendar year: Advent and Christmas season, Lent and Easter, the first through seventeenth weeks, and the eighteenth through thirty-fourth week.

CANON. In religious life, certain orders of men with specific duties often associated to a particular church, shrine or ecclesiastical function. Also a member of the clergy attached to a cathedral or other large church, with specific duties such as the choral recitation of the Divine Office.

CANONESS. A member of a women's religious community, following the Rule of St. Augustine. Usually committed to recitation of the Divine Office, they are now distinguished into regular and secular canonesses.

CARMELITE ORDER. The Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, founded in Palestine by St. Berthold (d. 1195) about 1154. It claims continuity with hermits on Mount Carmel from ancient times, and even to the prophet Elijah. The main purpose of the order is contemplation (See contemplative life), missionary work and theology.

CELIBACY. The state of being unmarried and, in Church usage, of one who has never been married. Catholicism distinguishes between lay and ecclesiastical celibacy, and in both cases a person freely chooses for religious reasons to remain celibate in order to dedicate himself wholeheartedly to the service of Christ and the works of the apostolate. [Note: males are celibate; females are virgins. See virginity.]

CISTERCIANS. A strict order of monks following the Rule of St. Benedict, founded in 1098 by St. Robert of Molesme (1024-1110). Its original purpose was to establish Benedictinism on austere lines along what was considered the primitive spirit. The Cistercians' way of life was to be one of silence, in a community devoted mainly to the liturgy and prayer.

CLERGY CELIBACY. The practice of not being married among those in major orders in the Church. Voluntary celibacy among the clergy goes back to the first century of the Christian era. (See also celibacy.)

CLOISTER. A covered walk enclosing a quadrangle around which monasteries are built. Also an enclosure for religious retirement. In canon law, restrictions to the free entry of outsiders within the limits of certain areas of the residence of men or women religious. (Etym. Greek claustrum, enclosure)

CODE OF CANON LAW. The new code, issued by Pope John Paul II in 1983, contains seven "books" of unequal length. They deal in sequence with General Norms, People of God, Teaching Office of the Church, Office Sanctifying in the Church, Temporal Goods in the Church, Sanctions in the Church, and Processes. The Books are divided into Parts, Titles, Chapters, Articles and finally Canons, of which there are 1752, as compared with 2414 canons in the former code of 1918.

COMMUNITY. A group of persons who share the same beliefs, live together under authority, and co-operate in pursing common interests for the benefit or others besides their own members.

CONSECRATED LIFE. A life of consecration by profession of the evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience. There are two basic forms of organized consecrated life, namely religious institutes and secular institutes.

DEACON. A man specially ordained to the service of the Church's ministry. The role of deacons is to assist priests in preaching, the conferral of baptism, performance of marriage, the administration of parishes, and similar duties. (See also permanent diaconate.)

DISCERNMENT OF SPIRITS. The ability to distinguish whether a given idea or impulse in the soul comes from the good spirit or from the evil spirit. It may be an act of the virtue of prudence, or a special gift of supernatural grace, or both.

DOMINICANS. The Order of Preachers, founded by St. Dominic (1170-1221), also known as friar preachers and in England as Black Friars. Especially devoted to preaching and teaching, they were the first major order to substitute intellectual work for manual labor.

ENCLOSURE. The cloister of a religious community which reserves certain parts of the residence to the exclusive use of the members of the community. Strict enclosure, called papal, is the standard for other, less restricted forms of cloister. It pertains to religious institutes of women who are strictly contemplative.

EREMITIC. (See hermit.)

FRANCISCANS. The numerous family of men and women religious who trace their spiritual ancestry to St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226). The Original Rule written by St. Francis in 1209 is now lost. It was recast in 1221 and brought into final form two years later, when it was approved by Pope Honorius III. Its distinctive feature is the obligation of poverty of dispossession, not only for individual members but for each community. The friars (brothers) were not to own property and were to earn their livelihood by manual labor or begging.

FRIAR. A brother. Originally a form of address in general use among the Christian faithful. Later the term came to be used more exclusively by members of religious orders, and finally, since the thirteenth century, it referred to those who belonged to the mendicant orders, mainly the Franciscans and Dominicans, although extended to others in the monastic tradition.

GREAT SILENCE. Periods of total silence observed in religious communities, usually from night prayers until next morning. The practice goes back to the beginnings of monasticism in the third century.

HERMIT. A person who dwells alone, devoting himself to prayer and meditation. Dating in Christianity from the early persecutions of the Church, hermits were known already in Old Testament times, as Elijah the Prophet and later St. John the Baptist. More numerous at first in Egypt and Asia Minor, Christian hermits soon spread to the West, where eventually monasteries arose combining the eremitical life with the cenobitical, and isolated hermits were encouraged to form communities.

HERMITAGE. The residence of a hermit, which normally allows him complete privacy for prayer and, in the case of a priest, for the celebration of Mass. In some cases hermitages are clustered around a central church or monastery where the hermits meet for periodic liturgical services and community exercises.

HOLY ORDERS. (See Orders, Sacrament of)

INSTITUTE, PONTIFICAL. A religious or secular institute of pontifical right, of men or women that has received formal approbation, or at least “Pontifical Recognition,” from the Holy See.

JESUITS. The Society of Jesus founded by St. Ignatius Loyola and approved by Pope Paul III in 1540. As conceived by the founder, it has a twofold aim: to strengthen and where necessary to restore the Catholic faith in the wake of the Protestant Reformation, and to preach the Gospel in non-Christian lands. Typical of the first purpose was the establishment of colleges throughout Europe, and the second purpose was the development of worldwide mission enterprises in Asia, Africa, and the newly developed Americas.

LAY BROTHER. A member of a clerical religious community or congregation who is not a priest or who is not preparing for the priesthood. (See also brothers.)

LAY SISTERS. Members of a religious institute of women who are not bound by choir duty or engaged in the distinctive apostolate of the rest of the community. Their role in a community of nuns is to serve the physical and temporal needs of those who are strictly cloistered . The term "extern Sisters" is sometimes used, but the expression is misleading. Lay Sisters are full members of the community and share in all its spiritual benefits.

MAJOR SUPERIOR. The abbot primate, the abbot superior of a monastic congregation, the abbot of a monastery, the superior general of an entire religious institute, the provincial superior, the vicars of all the foregoing, and all others who have powers equivalent to those of provincials.

MINISTRIES. Formerly called minor orders in the Catholic Church, namely reader and acolyte. They may now be committed to Christian men and are no longer reserved to candidates for the sacraments of orders.

MINOR ORDERS. The present ministries of acolyte, and reader or lector which for centuries had been called minor orders. They were never considered part of the sacrament of orders and in 1973 were all reduced to Church ministries to which men can be appointed in a special liturgical ceremony presided by a bishop or, for religious, a major superior.

MONASTERY. The place where religious dwell in seclusion. The term applies mainly to religious men or women who live a cloistered, contemplative life and recite the entire Divine Office in common. (Etym. Greek monasterion, from monazein, live alone.)

MONK. Originally a hermit or anchorite, but already in the early Church applied to men living a community life in a monastery, under the vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, according to a specific rule, such as that of St. Basil or Benedict. (See also evangelical counsels) (Etym. Greek monachos, living alone, solitary.)

NOVICE. A person formally admitted to a religious institute to prepare for eventual religious profession. The purpose of the noviceship is also to assist superiors to better know the candidates and therefore be able to pass correct judgment on their suitability for the religious life. The noviceship is of ancient origin, and its duration varied. At present one year at least is required by common law, but many communities require more. A novice receives the religious habit, which in women's communities includes a white veil. He or she may leave or be requested to leave without stated reason during this period of probation. Before first profession the novice must testify to free consent. (Etym. Latin novicius, new; newly arrived; novice.)

OBEDIENCE (See evangelical obedience.)

OFFICE, DIVINE. The canonical hours in the Roman Catholic liturgy. The revised Breviary since Second Vatican Council prescribes: Office of Readings, Morning Prayer, Daytime Prayer (Midmorning, Midday, Midafternoon) Evening Prayer and Night Prayer, including appropriate antiphons, orations, psalms, canticles, hymns and responsories.

ORATORIANS. Members of the congregation of the Oratory founded by St. Philip Neri in 1564 and approved by Pope Paul V in 1612. St. Philip's Oratory is a congregation of secular priests, technically a society of common life. Members are priests and brothers living a common life, without public vows. The purpose is to promote spiritual and cultural development by pastoral work, preaching and teaching, especially among students and the young.

ORDINARY. In ecclesiastical law a cleric with ordinary jurisdiction in the external forum over a specified territory; the Pope with unlimited jurisdiction; diocesan bishops and their vicars; prelates nullius; capitular vicars and administrators filling the vacancy in a diocese. Also superiors general, abbots primate, provincial abbots of exempt monasteries. Their representatives too are called ordinaries (Etym. Latin ordinarius, regular, usual.)

PARISH. Normally, in a diocese, a definite territorial division that has been assigned its own church, a determined group of the faithful, and its own distinct pastor who is charged with the care of souls. (Etym. Greek paroikos, dwelling near.)

PASTOR. An individual priest or corporate person (religious order or community) to whom a parish has been entrusted by a bishop, with rights and responsibilities conferred by canon law and statutes of a diocese. (Etym. Latin pastor, shepherd, literally, feeder.)

PERFECTAE CARITATIS. Decree of the Second Vatican Council on the "Up-to-Date Renewal of Religious Life." This is intended to complement the chapter on religious life in the Council's Constitution on the Church. It is therefore a normative document on how those dedicated to Christian perfection are to renew themselves in spirit and adapt themselves to the changing times. (October 25, 1965).

PERPETUAL VOWS. Ordinarily the final vows a person takes in an institute of Christian perfection, mainly poverty, chastity and obedience. (See also evangelical counsels.) Other vows may be added, according to the constitutions of the institute. They are also called last vows, although some communities take perpetual vows immediately after the novitiate, and others never take what are technically perpetual vows, but they simply renew their vows regularly, according to their rule of life. (See also solemn vows, and novice.)

PIOUS ASSOCIATION. In Church law, an organization of persons, approved by the local ordinary, chiefly engaged in the practice of the spiritual and corporal works of mercy. It is the usual status of a religious institute before its members are permitted to pronounce public vows in the name of the Church.

POOR CLARES. A monastic community founded by St. Clare (1194-1253) under the inspiration of St. Francis of Assisi. In keeping with the spirit of St. Francis, the austerity of the Poor Clares was the most severe among women religious up to that time. In succeeding years modifications and reforms divided the Poor Clares into various religious institutes, mainly Urbanists and Colettines. Their principle emphasis has been on mortification and Eucharistic adoration, with the chanting of the Divine Office.

POSTULANT. A person taking the first step in religious life before entering the novitiate and receiving the habit. The purpose of the postulancy is to acquire some knowledge of the religious life and of the particular institute through personal experience. It enables one to become better known to the superiors of the community, and to develop such virtue as will qualify the candidates for acceptance into the novitiate. (See also novice.) (Etym. Latin postulatum, a thing demanded; postulatio, supplication, intercession.)

POVERTY OF DISPOSSESSION. The complete renunciation of ownership and further acquisition of material possessions. The biblical foundation for such poverty is the declaration of Christ to the rich young man: “If you wish to be perfect, go and sell what you own and give the money to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven; then come, follow me” (Matthew 19:21).

PRAYER BOOK. A manual of prayers for private devotion by the faithful or for communal use by members of a religious community or confraternity.

PRELATE. A dignitary having jurisdiction in external forum by right of his office. There have been prelates “nullius” who presided over the clergy and people of a certain territory not belonging to an established diocese. Thus abbots, although not bishops, have the jurisdiction of a prelate.

PRESBYTERORUM ORDINIS. The Second Vatican Council's "Decree on the Ministry and Life of Priests." Priests are defined as those men who “hold in community of the faithful the sacred power of Orders, that of offering sacrifice and forgiving sins, and who exercise the priestly office publicly on behalf of men in the name of Christ” (December 7, 1965).

PRIESTHOOD. Sacrament of the New Law, instituted by Christ at the Last Supper, which confers on a man the power of consecrating and offering the body and blood of Christ, and of remitting and retaining sins. There are two grades or levels of the priesthood, the presbyterate and the episcopate. Normally priesthood refers to the presbyterate and is the second rank of Orders, above the diaconate. Only a bishop can ordain priests, who must first have been ordained deacons. In the ordination of priests, the “matter” of the sacrament is the imposition of the bishop's hands upon the individual candidates, which is done in silence before the consecration prayer, of which the following words pertain to the nature of the order and therefore are required for the validity of the act: “We ask you, all powerful Father, give these servants of yours the dignity of the presbyterate. Renew the Spirit of holiness within them. By your divine gift may they attain the second order of the hierarchy and exemplify right conduct in their lives.” (See also ministerial priesthood.)

PRIESTHOOD OF THE FAITHFUL. The share in the high priesthood of Christ received by everyone at baptism and strengthened by confirmation and the Eucharist. Essential to this priesthood is the right to receive the other sacraments, of participating in the Church's liturgy, and of being united with Christ the eternal priest as he offers himself, with the members of his Mystical Body, to the heavenly Father in the Eucharistic Sacrifice.

PROMISE. A declaration telling God or another person that one will or will not do something. A promise made to God is equivalently a vow, and it binds in conscience according to the gravity of the promise and the intention to obligate oneself under pain of sin. Promises made to people must be kept, and they oblige in justice or charity, with more or less seriousness depending on one’s ability to fulfill a promise and the harm caused to another by not keeping one’s word.

PROVINCIAL. A religious superior exercising general supervision over a number of houses that form a division of the order or congregation, called a province. The provincial superior in turn is subject to the superior general according to the constitutions of the institute.

QUEST. The begging of alms, for support according to rule, by mendicant Frairs Minor (See Franciscans), Capuchins, and the Poor Clares; and by religious communities like the Little Sisters of the Poor, who collect food and clothing for those under their care.

RECOLLECTION. Concentration of soul on the presence of God. It calls for considerable mental discipline to avoid dissipation of mind, but is required of all who aspire after Christian perfection.

RELIGIOUS RULE. The plan of life and discipline, approved by the Holy See, under which religious live in order to grow in Christian perfection and perform the works of the apostolate proper to their institute. (See also rule.)

RELIGIOUS STATE. According to ecclesiastical tradition, a fixed or stable manner of life that people of the same sex live in common, and in which they observe the evangelical counsels by means of the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.

RENEWAL. Renovation in the sense of restoring a practice, custom, or institution to its original meaning or purpose. Used by the Second Vatican Council especially of the spiritual renewal of religious communities, by a return to their Gospel foundations, the charisms of their founders, and the sacred traditions of their history.

RENUNCIATION. To give up something to which a person has a claim. Some renunciations are necessary by divine law; others are permitted and encouraged according to divine counsel. Everyone must renounce sin and those creatures that are proximate occasions to sin. In this category belongs the renunciation of Satan at baptism, either by a person being baptized or by the sponsor. Renunciations of counsel pertain to the exercise of such natural rights as material possessions, marriage, and legitimate autonomy or self-determination sacrificed for the love of God by those who vow themselves to poverty, chastity, and obedience. (See also evangelical counsels.)

RESIGNATION. The acceptance of God’s will in all circumstances of life, and especially during heavy trial or suffering. Also called abandonment, it has its object the submission of one’s own preferences or hopes to the dispositions of Providence. In canon law, resignation is the voluntary withdrawal of a person duly appointed to an ecclesiastical office. In order to be valid, the resignation must be accepted by an authorized person or body in the Church.

RETREAT. Withdrawal for a period of time from one’s usual surroundings and occupations to a place of solitude for meditation, self-examination, and prayer, in order to make certain necessary decisions in one’s spiritual life. Although the practice is older than Christianity, the example of Christ’s forty days in the desert makes such retreats part of divine revelation, to be imitated, as far as possible, by his followers. As a formal devotion among all classes of the faithful, retreats were introduced with the Counter-Reformation, led by St. Ignatius of Loyola (See Jesuits), and followed by St. Francis de Sales (See Salesians) and St. Vincent de Paul. Retreats for a specified number of days are required of all priests and religious.

RITE. The term in its widest ecclesiastical sense refers to the principle historic rituals in the Catholic Church, whose essentials are the same as derived from Jesus Christ. The four parent rites in Catholicism are the Antiochene, Alexandrine, Roman, and Gallican. Some religious orders have their own rites. In all cases, however, the ritual must be approved by the Holy See. (Etym. Latin ritus, religious custom, usage ceremony.

RULE. A principle or regular mode of action, prescribed by one in authority, for the well-being of those who are members of a society. It is in this sense that the organized methods of living the evangelical counsels are called rules, as the Rule of St. Augustine or St. Benedict. (Etym. Latin regula, a rule; norm.) (See also religious rule, Augustinians, and Benedictines.)

SACRAMENTAL CHARACTER. The indelible sign imprinted upon the soul when the sacraments of baptism, confirmation, and the priesthood is received. It is indelible because it remains even in a person who may lose the state of grace or even the virtue of faith. It is a sign because it signifies that the one baptized, confirmed, and ordained bears a special and unique relationship to Christ.

SALESIANS. Members of the Society of St. Francis de Sales (1567-1622), founded near Turin by St. John Bosco (1815-88) in 1859. The main purpose is to train youth in schools and professional and vocational institutes. They are also active in the missions and have entered the field of social communications. Their rule of life was approved by Pope Pius IX in 1874. St. John Bosco also founded a sister congregation of Daughters of Our Lady Help of Christians in 1872 at Mornese, Italy.

SCAPULAR. An outer garment consisting of two strips of cloth joined across the shoulders, worn by members of certain religious orders. Originating as the working frock of Benedictines, it was adopted by religious communities and is now considered a distinctive part of the monastic habit. It symbolizes the yoke of Christ. (Etym. Latin scapulare, scapularium, “shoulder cloak” from Latin scapula, shoulder.)

SECULAR CLERGY. Clergy who are engaged for the most part in pastoral work and who are not members of a religious institute. But they are not bound by a vow of poverty or community life. But their celibacy, in the Latin Church, is under solemn oath and they promise obedience to a bishop as their immediate superior under the Pope.

SECULAR INSTITUTE. A society of consecrated life, whether clerical or lay, whose members profess the evangelical counsels in the world. Their purpose is to enable the members to attain Christian perfection and to exercise a full apostolate. They are distinguished in ecclesiastical law from other common associations of the faithful. They were first approved by Pope Pius XII on February 2, 1947, in his constitution, Provida Mater, which still contains the guiding norms for their direction. Secular institutes differ from religious institutes or societies of apostolic life because, while their members take vows or promises, they are not technically the public vows of religion, and the members do not live a common life. They are, however, states of Christian perfection, whose apostolate is in the world.